Style as Character Insight The Use of Irony and Free Indirect Discourse in Jane Austens Major Works

Introduction No work of art achieves permanence unless its creator imbues it with a unique individual style that solidifies its value across cultures and across time. Truly, art would not exist without style. According to Susan Sontag, the earliest experiences of humankind reflected art as â€Å"incantatory, magical. Art was an agent of ritual† (65).Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on Style as Character Insight: The Use of Irony and Free Indirect Discourse in Jane Austen’s Major Works specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This view was followed by the preliminary theory of art as an imitation of reality understood by the ancient Greeks (Greenberg 2; Sontag 65). In any work of art multiple disclosures of truth take place. These contextual revelations can be endless; revelations of the society, not to mention the revelations of the artist himself. It could therefore be argued that the objects seen and fe lt by the artist constitute the mirrored image of her distinctive society. On the other hand, Alexander Pope argued that socialization itself murders authorial style (Miller 76). In Pope’s opinion, everyone is born with some taste that gets lost through education. Pope argued that nature played a crucial role in the judgment of style (Miller 76). From Pope’s assertion, the reader may deduce that in every art, there is a peculiar goodness that is peculiar to the artist. It is therefore irrelevant to argue the subjective value of one piece of art over another (Galperin 50). Great art reflects its truth vis à   vis â€Å"the relationship between aesthetic experience as met by the specific – not the generalized – individual, and the social and historical contexts in which that experience takes place† (Greenberg 1). Jane Austen’s novels clearly reflect these dual realities. Her work remains a stylized time capsule that reveals the complexities o f the social world that existed in the United Kingdom during the Regency period. The continued popularity of the author’s works speaks to the individuality and appeal of her writing style to generations of readers and scholars since that era. Jane Austen’s stylistic choices typically present male characters as one of two types: shrewdly reluctant romantics, or fools easily duped by Jane Austen’s wily female protagonists that have become so beloved over the years, including Emma Woodhouse, the heroine of Emma. The inner workings of Jane Austen’s characters typically provide somewhat awkward and unnerving insights into polite society (Harding 167).Advertising Looking for term paper on literature languages? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Many literary scholars view Jane Austen’s works as â€Å"country house novels† (Le Faye 11). Some have labeled them as â€Å"comedies of conduct† according to Le Faye, comedies of manners that embrace the affairs and social conspiracies of upper class people living in a stylish and civilized culture (11). These comedies of conduct typically present a violation of social traditions and etiquette; while Jane Austen’s keen social observations remain veiled by the sparkle and wit of her dialogue (Le Faye 45). As a rule, Jane Austen’s fiction has come to represent â€Å"one of the most sophisticated analyses we have of the elusive character or quality of sociable human interaction† (Russell 176). However, a number of literary scholars regard Jane Austen as a darker, more socially engaged writer. Her novels involve the author advancing 19th century social theory via the use of a style that reveals the theory of mind within each character (Ferguson 118). Many of Jane Austen’s works feature characters that adopt one self publicly and another privately; thus, the conflict between these selves becomes the meat of the novel (Ferguson 118). This paper endeavors to critically analyze the stylistic devices Jane Austen employs in her work to recreate the social psychology of the 19th century British upper classes for the reader. The paper favors the devices of irony and free indirect discourse as the main stylistic choices Jane Austen applies to give the reader insight and access to the interior, psychological landscape of her characters. Background Jane Austen was born in Hampshire, England in 1775, the seventh child of eight children. Jane Austen’s early introduction to classical works arrived through the influence of her father, George Austen, a member of the English landed gentry who also worked as a preacher and educator (Galperin 49; Le Faye 10). Though the family was not wealthy, they were land owners, and as such Jane Austen’s childhood was a happy one with full access to intellectual stimulation and learning (Le Faye 10). After the death of George Austen in 1805, Ja ne, together with her mother and sister Cassandra moved to Chawton village, where she received a marriage proposal from a wealthy brother of her close friend (Tinkcom 134).Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on Style as Character Insight: The Use of Irony and Free Indirect Discourse in Jane Austen’s Major Works specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Jane Austen initially accepted this proposal but turned it down the following day; scholars argue the rejection of the proposal occurred because Jane Austen fully understood the role of marriage in the mobility of a woman in those days, together with all the vulnerabilities of single women who relied on wealthy relatives for accommodation (Tinkcom 57). Marriage at that time remained the sole form of social leverage available to women of the upper classes (Galperin 50; Le Faye 11). This event appears to be a seminal one in the life of the author, as the social theme o f marriage plays out very much in several of Jane Austen’s novels, including Emma, and Sense and Sensibility, as does the theme of social class positioning, a phenomenon of great interest to the author. Jane Austen’s works can be identified with the eighteenth century novel traditions. According to Duckworth, Austen read broadly in many genres including works which were regarded as mediocre; however, the major feature of her reading activities was noting native genres traversed by women writers at the time (48). The publishing environment for women during the 19th century was perilous (Ferguson 2). The social environment dictated that propriety be maintained above all else, and at the time literature was deemed too vulgar for women to engage in (Ferguson 2; Lascelles 88). In this sense therefore, Jane Austen remains one of literature’s first female mavericks. Irony When critically examined, the works of Jane Austen show the effect of the literary state of affair s of the 18th century period. The works at this time embraced the notion of and social environment and man’s perspective relative to individual circumstances. In essence, an individual’s needs were sublimated to the needs appropriate to his or her social role. Satire and humor are characteristics embraced in literature during this period; however, the use of irony became the ultimate tool for authors to critique their society discreetly. In Jane Austen’s novels, the romantic and passionate nature of her characters is evident, though implied (Ferguson 76). Jane Austen’s works demonstrate the role of passion and its place in society. Though these novels appeared in the middle of the Romantic period, they also involve an intellectual and cerebral quality that minimizes the absolute praise of the youthful passions expressed in other works written during this period. To this end, Jane Austen combines passion and reason through the use of irony.Advertising Looking for term paper on literature languages? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Jane Austen has embraced the use of irony in many of her most famous pieces. Though scholars typically identify Jane Austen as a romantic author, her style largely renders a biting and acidic account of romance. The author applies contrast to the plain meaning of a character’s account of a situation or event, in order to create a witty twist and reduce the magnitude of the original statement and highlight its ironic disjunction. In her juvenile literary works, Jane Austen depended on satire, irony and parody fixed on absurdity to color the romantic view. In her mature literary works, she employed irony to forestall social pretense and to highlight discrepancies between familial duties and character, as well as character foibles. A classic example of this occurs in Mansfield Park. The author writes: To the education of her daughters Lady Bertram paid not the smallest attention. She had not time for such cares. She was a woman who spent her days in sitting nicely dressed on a s ofa, doing some long piece of needlework, of little use and no beauty, thinking more of her pug than her children, but very indulgent to the latter, when it did not put herself to inconvenience (Austen 16). Jane Austen’s use of irony is â€Å"exemplified in romanticism’s earliest forms and carried into the nineteenth century, where absence, division, and fragmentation are completed by their readers’ own mistaken ideas† (Greenham 163). In the above example, the reader’s reaction to the neglect demonstrated by Lady Bertram toward her offspring fuels the irony of the story. As such, Jane Austen’s style employs irony to criticize not only the marriage institution but the parental ideal of care and concern for the welfare of children, placed in the hands of indolent, spoilt, utterly self-absorbed individuals. As Greenham notes, romantic authors in the vein of Jane Austen’s style â€Å"use our expectations to deceive us because their texts are completed only by the expectations of the reader, a use of expectation that reveals, through negation, the reader’s false ideas and ideals† (163). Jane Austen’s genteel use of language and style barely conceals her contempt for the social conventions that would allow such individuals to prosper. Similarly, in Pride and Prejudice, Jane Austen draws the reader’s attention to irony in the opening line. The author writes â€Å"it is a realism that is widely recognized, that a single man in charge of a good fortune should be in need of a wife† (6). At first glance this statement appears simple and predictable; however, the plot of the statement contradicts it. As it says, it is a woman without a fortune who is in need of a husband. Also, in Pride and Prejudice, the major structural motif creates irony in the story which stimulates a reader’s judgment and attention, besides engaging a reader’s feelings. Jane Austen’s paradoxical and ironic character sketches also underscore the reciprocal impact of personality and society in Emma. Like many of Jane Austen’s novels, Emma presents an explanation of how one learns to see oneself, others, and personalized relationships more clearly as events unfold. But to prevent this occurrence Jane Austen has employed an unparalleled blend of styles to present her thesis. Emma comes out as Jane Austen’s masterwork as she manages to capitalize on irony and the use of free indirect discourse effectively. Greenham notes that the character of Emma Woodhouse is â€Å"femininity ironized† (165). The romantic novels of Jane Austen typically contain these strong heroines, deeply restricted by the class and gender roles of their time, whose actions and inner thoughts do not align – herein lies Greenham’s point. Jane Austen’s style use irony to bedevil social veneer. The reader understands this in the opening line of the novel: â€Å"Emma Woo dhouse, handsome, clever, and rich, with a comfortable home and happy disposition, seemed to unite some of the best blessings of existence; and had lived nearly twenty-one years in the world with very little to distress or vex her† (Austen 1). Jane Austen uses the word â€Å"seemed† to pique the reader’s suspicion (Austen 1). As Greenham explains, this word is â€Å"always a sign of ambiguity† (165). Once the word â€Å"seemed† registers in the mind of the reader, everything that Jane Austen describes about the heroine becomes open to interpretation. As Greenham notes, the word leads the reader to assume â€Å"some kind of deflationary irony, which might in turn lead the reader to conclude that Emma is none of these things to the extent that she appears. The tension, then, would be between appearance and reality† (165). The social psychology of the characters in the world of Jane Austen’s novels remains ultimately ambiguous and uncerta in; nothing can be assumed to be true, often since the actions and the words of the characters create an ironic distance. Further use of irony becomes apparent when the reader witnesses Emma’s thoughts at the first meeting with Harriet Smith. She immediately sees in Harriet some kind of project that she might embark on, the belief that she could make an upper class woman out of Harriet’s kind request could be a reflection of Emma’s impolite disposition towards others. It could also be construed as a confession that she is meddlesome and self-centered, as Emma’s actions indicate that she is the only person entitled to effect such improvement on another human being. However, the ironic truth becomes apparent later, through Jane Austen’s skilful use of irony, when the reader concludes that it is actually Emma who desperately needs improvement. Emma is presented as one person with a contrary judgment; however, since the character only keeps such convic tions between herself and the reader, she enhances the various ironic twists that Jane Austen has employed in the novel. Brownstein argues that the use of irony in Jane Austen’s novels speak to the actual physical and psychological experience of women at that time in history. Language itself was a chess match, and the social conventions so complex and rigorous that one wrong word could topple the most socially graced female. As Brownstein notes, among the female protagonists such as Emma Woodhouse, â€Å"choosing language, commenting on the stereotypes and formulas of novelists, and the language available for use in social life, is always Austen’s subject† (Brownstein 59). An example of this occurs following Mr. Knightley’s proposal of marriage in Emma. The response that Emma Woodhouse gives is the model of propriety, and illustrates the author’s use of irony to highlight the restrictive and psychologically complex social environment of upper class women of marriageable age: â€Å"What did she say? Just what she ought, of course. A lady always does. She said enough to show there need not be despair – and to invite him to say more himself† (Austen 386). In Brownstein’s analysis, Jane Austen used irony not only to write as a lady but to illustrate life as a lady. As Brownstein explains, â€Å"Writing as A Lady, Austen savors the discrepancy between being a stable sign in her culture as well as a user and analyst of its signs† (Brownstein 59) Austen and Knowledge of Intention Authorial intention comes out as an issue of great interest in Jane Austen’s work. Though this may be a difficult thing to find in the absence of the author, literary analysis involves the interpretive spectrum around the determination of authorial intention. In this line of thought, many critics have viewed a literary work of thought which fades the author from the message that is being communicated; as such, many critics have not managed to find subtle ways of determining authorial intent. The simplicity that Jane Austen exhibits in her work provides a clear template for authorial intention. There is usually a paradigm between what we learn from the novel and what we know about the real author’s world. While reading Austen’s work, one construes several images of the author (Le Faye 135). But, different people, depending on their inclinations and other factors, form their own images that fit those inclinations, hampered by the distance of time and the complete transformation that has occurred in the social relationships between heterosexual men and women since Jane Austen’s time. Looking at Jane Austen’s works, several images of the author appear, and several different perspectives arise among private readers as to who Jane Austen really was, and what she really stood for as an artist and as a social critic. Jane Austen has staged parodist sensations that imbue her later novels with a gothic quality – an example is her novel Northanger Abbey. Issues within the novel border on gender and power. For example, Catherine experiences several challenges in her life through the novel such that by the time she arrives at Abbey, she has really faced an array of issues. From this Austen manages to present a sustained fear and anxiety throughout her work (Wilde 156). In Northanger Abbey, there seems to be a greater connection between surprise and emotion. Jane Austen has also employed dialogue as a means of endearing the reader to the outward reality. She has effectively used this at the proposal scene in the novel Emma. For instance, some of the lengthy dialogues usually act as preludes to something about to happen (Wiltshire 132). A case in point is the quarrel that ensues after Harriet refuses Robert Martin (Austen 113). Emma’s behind the scenes manipulation shines herein; to hide her machinations, she maintains a calm disposition. This demonst rates Jane Austen’s multidimensional approach towards style. Jane Austen has also presented Emma Woodhouse in such a way that her appearance does not coincide with the revelation. Such an ironic nature of presentation is a distinctive mechanism through which Jane Austen exhibits her authorial intention and unique style. Free Indirect Speech Jane Austen has meticulously utilized the practice of free indirect discourse. Free indirect speech was a literary device created by Henry Fielding in the 18th century and used liberally by many novelists at that time. Todd indicates that the free indirect speech allows the speech and the thoughts of the characters to socialize with the voice of the narrator (33). As a device, the use of free indirect discourse facilitates access to the interior psychology of the character without interrupting the social convention in place in the world of the novel. This device allows authors to write about things that would never be spoken about – in essence – to delve into the private mind of the character. In a Jane Austen novel, much of the action remains implied, an element of authorial style that mimics the social confines of its characters – essentially – no one says what they really mean, because to do so would be social suicide. Without free indirect discourse, much of the actions of the characters within Jane Austen’s novels would be indecipherable for the reader. As Neumann explains, â€Å"so much of an Jane Austen novel is apparently shown or dramatized rather than told or narrated, [thus] it becomes of particular interest not just to trace how Jane Austen reports the speech and thought of her characters but also to consider when and how judgments on the characters’ consciousnesses are implied as well as stated† (364). The stylistic device of free indirect discourse illustrates one example of how Jane Austen authenticates the consciousnesses of her characters. This device renders the interior workings of the characters’ minds visible to only the reader and themselves. As Neumann explains, free indirect discourse in a Jane Austen novel employs â€Å"sentences which combine a character’s reported voice with the narrator’s reporting voice, sentences in which the narrator can both render, and comment on, the utterance reported† (364). The net effect of this device brings the quality of mind to life for the reader; as such, the action becomes interior and subtle, implied and muted. In one of her works, Sense and Sensibility, Jane Austen extensively uses this approach. For example, Mrs. John Dashwood â€Å"did not endorse intends of her husband†¦ to take three thousand pounds from the plight of their precious little boy†¦ she begged him to think again on the subject†¦.. how would he have answered to him to deny his child†¦..† (20). The extract draws a straightforward story in the â€Å"voice† of the narrator. In this example, Jane Austen proves the inner feelings of the character and fixes the imagination the reader is entering the characters mind. In the novel Emma, Jane Austen applies the stylistic device of free indirect discourse masterfully to develop the relationship between Emma and Mr. Knightley. As Bray notes, the use of free indirect discourse ensures that â€Å"everything is presented through Emma’s dramatized consciousness, and the essential effects depend on that† (10). In Emma, one of the clearest and most effective examples of free indirect discourse occurs when Emma and Harriet Smith discuss Mr. Knightley. Emma asks: Have you any idea of Mr. Knightley’s returning your affection? Yes, replied Harriet modestly, but not fearfully – I must say that I have. Emma’s eyes were instantly withdrawn; and she sat silently meditating, in a fixed attitude, for a few minutes. A few minutes were sufficient for making her acquainted with h er own heart. A mind like her’s, once opening to suspicion, made rapid progress. She touched – she admitted – she acknowledged the whole truth. Why was it so much worse that Harriet should be in love with Mr. Knightley, than with Frank Churchill? Why was the evil so dreadfully increased by Harriet’s having some hope of a return? It darted through her, with the speed of an arrow, that Mr. Knightley must marry no one but herself! (Austen 335) In this passage, Jane Austen uses the free indirect discourse to plumb the depths of her main character’s denial. In this one passage, the author peels away multiple layers of truth slowly and steadily, to reveal the romantic yearnings that Emma holds very close to her core, the element of her affection that she has revealed to no one thus far, not even herself. In this regard, the power of this stylistic device is threefold – it reveals character intention, explains character action, and functions as a b ond between reader and character. The stylistic use of free indirect discourse places the reader in the role of confidante. As Bray explains, in this example, â€Å"here Harriet’s supposedly reciprocated feelings for Knightley force Emma to acknowledge the truth of her own heart. A few minutes of reflection are enough for revelation to be reached. Notice that the trajectory by which Emma arrives at the truth, from touching, to admitting, to acknowledging, is first described indirectly, from the vantage-point of an external narrator, and then presented more directly, as the narrative enters into her mind† (18). Herein lies the value of free indirect discourse as a means of drawing out the interior social psychology not only of the character, but of the larger social world that Jane Austen’s characters inhabit, in all its rigidity and artifice. Bray notes that it is â€Å"Emma who asks herself, Why was it so much worse that Harriet should be in love with Mr. Knig htley, than with Frank Churchill? and Why was the evil so dreadfully increased by Harriet’s having some hope of a return?† (18). Through free indirect discourse, the reader learns the truth at the same time as the character. The device allows the character’s consciousness to become a character independent to the social character witnessed in the novel, which in turn reflects the schism that occurs in the selves of the characters between their social personas and their actual selves. As Bray notes, Emma’s â€Å"consciousness could be said to be dramatized here if by this is understood the narrative’s attempt to re-enact, rather than describe externally, the character’s actual thought-processes. From Why was it so much worse onwards the reader is granted intimate access to Emma’s thoughts and anxieties, leading up to her final moment of anagnorisis† (18). In regard then, the style device of free indirect discourse functions as a m eans of granting access to the deep action of the story, as motivated by the deep and largely unconscious desires of the characters. This phenomenon explains why several scholars view Jane Austen as one of the foremost romantic novelists writing from a social psychology perspective. Beauty A number of the characters in Jane Austen’s novels remain susceptible to feminine beauty, and the author’s stylistic choices to use this weakness for beautiful women as a distraction, particularly among the male characters in her novels, often begets surprisingly comedic results. In her essay An Argument about Beauty, Susan Sontag notes that â€Å"beauty, it seems, is immutable, at least when incarnated – fixed – in the form of art, because it is in art that beauty as an idea, an eternal idea, is best embodied. Beauty†¦is deep, not superficial; hidden, sometimes, rather than obvious; consoling, not troubling; indestructible, as in art, rather than ephemeral, as in nature. Beauty, the stipulatively uplifting kind, perdures† (Sontag 208). A perfect example of this power occurs in the novel Emma. Through the character of Mr. Knightley, Jane Austen give voice to all of the less than stellar qualities of her heroine – her peevishness, her inability to cease meddling in other people’s romantic affairs, her liberal enjoyment of manipulation of family and friends, and her lazy and indolent nature – not to mention the fact that her family, especially her father, spoiled her. â€Å"I, [Mr. Knightley] soon added, who have had no such charm thrown over my senses, must still see, hear, and remember. Emma is spoiled by being the cleverest of her family. At ten years old, she had the misfortune of being able to answer questions which puzzled her sister at seventeen†¦And ever since she was twelve, Emma has been mistress of the house and of you all. In her mother she lost the only person able to cope with her† (Austen 4 8). Yet, Mr. Knightley remains struck by Emma’s pulchritude, a weakness that Mrs. Weston appears perfectly willing to exploit, as evidenced in the following example: Oh! You would rather talk of her person than her mind, would you? Very well; I shall not attempt to deny Emma’s being pretty. Pretty! Say beautiful rather. Can you imagine anything nearer perfect beauty than Emma altogether – face and figure? I do not know what I could imagine, but I confess that I have seldom seen a face or figure more pleasing to me than hers (Austen 49) The beauty of the heroines in Jane Austen’s works functions as a distraction, the problematic element of sexual desire thrown into the mix. Physical beauty at that time in history remained one of a woman’s most potent tools of power, and Jane Austen’s protagonists typically wield it as a means to avoid any deep form of dialogue or authentic emotional intimacy. Conclusion A master of style, Jane Austen’s work reveals the complex social machinations at the heart of the romantic dealings between men and women in the United Kingdom during the 18th century Regency Period. The author’s effective use of the stylistic devices of irony and free indirect discourse draw the reader into the deep stratum of each character’s psychology to reveal the personal motivations behind the action of the novels. Jane Austen developed a style that could essentially tell the story that could not be told in the rigid social environment that her characters dwelled in. As such, Jane Austen’s style reveals the individual’s desires in conflict and opposition to the social conventions that restricted their use of language, particularly in the realm of romance. Works Cited Austen, Jane. Emma. Ed. Alistair M. Duckworth. New York: Bedford St. Martin’s Press, 2002. Austen, Jane. Mansfield Park. New York: W.W. Norton, 1998. Print. Bray, Joe. â€Å"The Source of Dramatized Conscious ness: Richardson, Austen, and Stylistic Influence.† Style 35.1 (2001): 18-36. Web. Brownstein, Rachel M. â€Å"Jane Austen: Irony and Authority.† Nineteenth-Century Literature Criticism. Ed. Russel Whitaker. Vol. 150. Detroit: Gale, 2005. Print. Duckworth, Alistair M. The Improvement of the Estate: A Study of Jane Austen’s Novels. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1971. Print. Ferguson, Moira. â€Å"Mansfield Park: Slavery, Colonialism, and Gender.† Oxford Literary Review 13.1 (1991): 118–39. Print. Galperin, William. The Historical Austen. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003. Print. Greenberg, Clement. Art and Culture: Critical Essays. Boston: Beacon Press, 1966. Print. Greenham, David. â€Å"The Concept of Irony: Jane Austen’s Emma and Philip Roth’s Sabbath’s Theater.† Philip Roth Studies 1.2 (2005): 163-175. Web. Harding, D. W. â€Å"Regulated Hatred: An Aspect of the Work of Jane Austen†. Jane Austen: A Collection of Critical Essays. Ed. Ian Watt. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1963. Print. Lascelles, Mary. Jane Austen and Her Art. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1966. Print. Le Faye, Deirdre. â€Å"Chronology of Jane Austen’s Life†. The Cambridge Companion to Jane Austen. Eds. Edward Copeland and Juliet McMaster. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. Print. Miller, D. A. Jane Austen, or The Secret of Style. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2003. Print. Neumann, Anne Waldron. â€Å"Characterization and Comment in Pride and Prejudice: Free Indirect Discourse and Double-voiced Verbs of Speaking, Thinking, and Feeling.† Nineteenth-Century Literature Criticism. Ed. Russel Whitaker. Vol. 150. Detroit: Gale, 2005. Print. Russell, Gillian. â€Å"Sociability.† The Cambridge Companion to Jane Austen. Eds. Edward Copeland and Juliet McMaster. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. Print. Sontag, Susan. â€Å"An A rgument about Beauty.† Daedalus 134.4 (2005): 208-. Web. Sontag, Susan. Against Interpretation. New York: Dell Publishing Press, 1966. 15-36. Print. Tinkcom, Matthew. Working like a Homosexual. North Carolina: Duke University Press, 2002. Print. Todd, Janet. The Cambridge Introduction to Jane Austen. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Print. Wilde, Oscar. The Decay of Lying. London: Book Club Associates, 1976. Print. This term paper on Style as Character Insight: The Use of Irony and Free Indirect Discourse in Jane Austen’s Major Works was written and submitted by user Tristen C. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Decision Making Process

Decision Making Process Decision making has a key role in determining the success of an organization, given that resources and other important parts of a company are influenced by decisions made. The speed with which decisions can be made is of essence as it directly determines the rate of duty execution thus; it is paramount for decisions to be timely. This has elicited debate as to which strategy of decision making between decentralized or centralized is better for organizations to adopt.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Decision Making Process specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The management of AES for example, is inclined to the decentralized strategy of decision making. Though the organization stresses on four core values that must be followed by everybody, each department has the freedom of choosing which method to use in executing their duties bearing in mind the core values (O’Reilly Pferffer 2000). Human resource department i s not part of the organization’s strategy of decision making instead, employees are supposed to come up with ways of tackling issues in their line of duty. It is the responsibility of the employees to organize for training sessions whenever they are faced with difficult situations or issues that they are not conversant with. Through this, the employees of AES have learned to be responsible for their actions and they feel they are part of the people who will make the organization succeed and therefore, their level of productivity has increased. The strategy helps the organization in adapting fast to the dynamic business world and expedites the decision making process, as well as enhancing common set of values that are followed by each employee (O’Reilly Pfeffer 2000). Centralized decision making strategy does not provide for flexibility incase there are unforeseen changes in the business environment therefore, giving the opponents a competitive advantage in such instan ces. The easiness and speed of decision making that is associated with decentralized decision making strategy allows quick reaction to the dynamics of the business world, and that is what has helped AES to prosper. When people work as a team, the average output of the organization is improved since team members are ready to help each other hence eliminating inefficiency. Decentralized strategy of decision making highly advocates for employees to work as a team hence increasing productivity (Ariunaa 2010). Different individuals have knowledge in different issues therefore, incorporating them in the decision making process ensures that high value decisions are made. On the same note, decentralized decision making strategy allows employees of various departments to use the experience they might have regarding their department or apply the knowledge they have to run and upgrade these sections. This ensures that the latest knowledge is used to run any given department thus, uphosslding e fficiency in production.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In conjunction with that, employees are able to change the way they carry out some duties without necessarily waiting for approval from the top management, which sometimes takes long thus, increasing their efficiency. It should be noted that it is easier for a person to discover his or her area of weakness and change it rather than waiting for the authorities to correct the same (Griffin 2010). Additionally, decentralized strategy makes use of division and specialization of labor which ensures that each employee performs to his or her best thus, taking advantage of wide expertise of the employees. Furthermore, sluggishness of business operations is avoided in decentralized strategy as opposed to centralized strategy where decision making process may take a long duration because the top management has to meet and make decisions. As far as decentralized strategy is concerned, a problem once discovered can easily be managed and normal operations resume without delay because the people who are supposed to make decisions are easily accessed (Griffin 2010). If a mistake occurs in decision making process, the whole system is not broken down if the organization uses decentralized strategy since only one department gets affected, while in centralized strategy the whole process can easily be brought to a halt by a single mistake. On the other hand, decentralized strategy has its setbacks that can sometimes hinder operations if not taken care of. To begin with, given the diverse views that people may have, it sometimes becomes difficult to make these people agree on one idea regarding certain issues and this may annoy those whose ideas do not carry the day therefore reducing their morale at work (Ariunaa 2010). On the same note, it is very easy for the organization to lose focus on the core values if employees are given too much freedom to do what they think is right, because the tendency of getting out of line is high. Therefore, it is advantageous if an organization decentralizes some of the decision making process but centralizes the implementation of the core values and the promotion of organizational culture and mission.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Decision Making Process specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Each department needs some level of freedom to solve its own problems as the people there have the first hand information of what affects them. On top of that, employees feel valued if they are involved in the decision making process and they will increase their efficiency which in turn increases the general output of the company (Griffin 2010). References Ariunaa, L. (2010). Fiscal Federalism and Decentralization in Mongolia. Potsdam: Universittsverlag Potsdam. Griffin, W. R. (2010). Management. St anford: Cengage Learning. O’Reilly, A. C., Pfeffer, J. (2000). Hidden Value. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.

Operation Management Exam Questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Operation Management Exam Questions - Essay Example In production and operations management, three types of capacity are often referred to: Potential Capacity - The capacity that can be made available to influence the planning of senior management (e.g. in helping them to make decisions about overall business growth, investment etc). This is essentially a long-term decision that does not influence day-to-day production management Capacity, being the ability to produce work in a given time, must be measured in the unit of work. Brooks (1995) writes about a "man hour", the amount of work performed by an average worker in one hour. As Brooks (1995) notes, there is a problem with this capacity that organization, training and co-ordination activities could more than outweigh the potential benefits of having extra staff working on a task. In Capacity Management there are usually two potential constraints - time and capacity. Time may be a constraint where a customer has a particular required delivery date. In this situation, capacity managers often plan backwards, i.e. they allocate the final stage of the production tasks to the period where delivery is required; the penultimate task one period earlier and so on. This process helps identify whether there is sufficient time to meet the production demands and whether capacity needs to be increased, even if temporarily. One of the objectives of capacity management is to deliver best practices that establish a communications framework between IT operations and the business. This is essential for ensuring that the capacity management process works toward meeting the business capacity requirements. The typical problem is that IT operations often work with measures of computer performance, megabytes of storage, or other expressions of capacity or throughput. At the same time, the business is using expressions such as sales effectiveness, market share, time to market, profit, cash flow, and return on investment (ROI). (Microsoft 2006) PART B Discuss the capacity management strategies available to a manufacturing company who produce a range of domestic air conditioning units and experience peaks and troughs in demand in line with summer and winterer seasons. The most durable solutions to manage capacities in manufacturing of domestic air conditioning units come under the category of adjusting capacity correcting measures depending on the season. Of course, implementation and use of these strategies may actually require changing existing management approaches, and this is not necessarily simple to do. Alternative, temporary measure can be implemented, but then consideration must be given to both the near and longer term incentives and impacts that these measures create. Ultimately, the actual adoption of Capacity Management is a political decision and, as such, may not necessarily relate directly to the most technically efficient

Anti-War Movement & Women Liberation Movement Research Paper

Anti-War Movement & Women Liberation Movement - Research Paper Example The fear had arisen due to communist victory in countries neighbouring Vietnam. Moreover, the country considered France weak in stopping the influence of communism in the region. Therefore, the administration viewed that France needed help to overcome the influence of communism from countries such as Japan and USSR (King Web). Moreover, the achievement of Vietnam independence in 1945 was seen as a threat of French existence. Initially, Ho Chi Minh had led the Vietnamese people to gaining independence from French and Japanese occupation (King Web). However, the French was not satisfied but willing to regain the lost colony. However, due to various challenges, the French sought the help of United States. In the speech, King notes,† Even before the French defeat we encouraged them with massive financial and military supplies to continue the war even after they had lost the will† (King Web). On the other hand, the government impression was that Vietnamese people were not prep ared for independence (King Web). As a result, the government was against the establishment of a genuine form of government established out of revolution. The government had been established without the assistance of China but indigenous forces and remnants of communists. The peasants had faith in the new leadership in implementing land reforms. On the other hand, the United States intended to control the administration of Vietnam. In fact, United States had a notion that Ho was not fit to unite the already divisive country. Therefore, United States ensures installation of their man Premier Diem (King Web). Diem became authoritarian, non-reformist, and failed to accept oppositions. Consequently, there were various revolts against the rule. As a result, the troops came in the country to quell the revolt against their chosen person. Moreover, military dictatorship of the United States continued after the toppling of Diem from power. However, in the United States, people were promised that military intervention was furthering the course of democracy and land reforms. Most, the message was delivered in terms of leaflets to the people. Additionally, United States deemed National Liberation Front as communist. As a result, the revolution was viewed as an enemy of the United States. Moreover, United States linked the death of Diem with communist activities in the region. Therefore, military advisors were sent to quell the groups of communism in south as well as the rebel movement. Moreover, the involvement was meant to curtail â€Å"aggression from the north† (King Web). In the 1960s, there was a rise of a new generation of students. Most of the students developed a culture of non-conformist. In fact, they resisted most of the ideal of America. One of the significant forms of resistance was organised in Berkley students against the House Un-American Activities Committee (Kitchell Web). They were against United States oppression of political freedom. There was also establishment of a radical student movement known as SLATE to inform Student on various issues regarding the country. As a result, there was increased interest in politics. Moreover, student participated in off-campus issues such as civil rights, nuclear production, and apartheid. Civil rights inspired student activism and helped students with rigorous objection. This was prominent among student of Morehouse College as opined by King (King Web). Victory in free speech and civil rights encouraged the student

Tissue Engineering

Tissue Engineering The first time tissue engineering was introduced it gave the promise to repair or replace damaged organs, the field has dramatically evolved from its origins in the late 1980s. Tissue engineering is a field that is rapidly growing and becoming extremely important within biomedical engineering, it mainly links the rapid developments in cellular and molecular biology together with chemical and mechanical engineering. The graph below shows the amount of money the US federal government is spending on different areas of stem cell research. The National institute of health in the United States defined tissue engineering, in other words regenerative medicine as being: An emerging multidisciplinary field involving biology, medicine, and engineering that is likely to revolutionise the ways we improve the health and quality of life for millions of people worldwide by restoring, maintaining, or enhancing tissue and organ function. (1) Tissue engineering is in fact the application of certain scientific principles brought together to enhance the design, modification, construction, growth, and the maintenance of living tissue. Tissue engineering is divided into two main categories. The first being Vitro, this involves the construction of bioartificial tissues from cells isolated by enzymatic dissociation of a specific donor tissue. Bioartificial tissues are ones which are used as an alternative to organ transplantation, these tissues are composed of natural and synthetic substances. The second category of tissue engineering is Vivo, this involves the alteration and variation of cell growth and function. Examples of applications of tissue engineering include, bone and cartilage implants, formation of bioartificial skin and nerve regeneration. Perhaps the most important concept in tissue engineering is stem cell biology. This is the concept which brought back the idea of using cell based approaches for treating diseases such as heart diseases. Research made on stem cells aims to get knowledge on how an organism develops from a single cell and how healthy cells replace damaged cells in adult organisms. Stem cells can be defined as ‘a small subpopulation of the proliferating compartment, consisting of relatively undifferentiated proliferative cells that maintain their population size when they divide while at the same time producing progeny that enter a dividing transit population within which further rounds of cell division occur, together with differentiation events, resulting in the production of the various differentiated functional cells required of the tissue. (6) Stem cells are different to other kinds of cells in the human body. All stem cells have three general properties which contribute to their scientific importance. (1) The first is that they are capable of dividing and renewing themselves for long periods. Other kinds of cells including muscle cells or nerve cells do not normally replicate themselves. Stem cells may replicate many times or proliferate. A population of stem cells that proliferates for many months in laboratory can yield millions of cells. The second property of stem cells is that they are unspecialised, the ability of the cells resulting from proliferation to continue being unspecialised like the parent stem cells makes them capable of long term self renewal. In fact stem cells do not have any tissue specific structures that allow them to perform specialised functions. A stem cell does not have the ability to perform the functions a heart muscle cell or a red blood cell would do. In other words, a stem cell cannot work to pump blood through the body like a heart muscle cell, and it cannot carry oxygen in blood like a red blood cell does. The third property of stem cells is that they have got the potential to differentiate into various cell types in the body, this process happens during early life. When a stem cell divides, new cells formed could either remain as stem cells or become another type of cells with a more specialised function. Unspecialised stem cells develop into specialised cells, including heart muscle cells, nerve cells and others. In research two kinds of stem cells have been used, these are embryonic stem cells and non embryonic stem cells, also called somatic or adult stem cells. Embryonic stem cells are ‘undifferentiated cells derived from a 5 days pre-implantation embryo that are capable of dividing without differentiating for a prolonged period in culture. (1) Embryonic stem cells are mainly derived from embryos that result from eggs that have been fertilised in vitro. Scientists have discovered a method to obtain stem cells from human embryos and then growing them in vitro, these cells are called human embryonic stem cells. Human embryonic stem cells are derived from the blastocyst. These are embryos that are around five days old, the time required for blastocyst formation to start after fertilisation in humans. A non embryonic (Somatic or adult) stem cell is ‘an undifferentiated cell found in many organs and differentiated tissues with a limited capacity for both self renewal (in vitro) and differentiation. (1) Non embryonic cells are undifferentiated cells found in a tissue or an organ that can renew themselves and can differentiate and develop specialised cell types of the specific tissue or organ. This type of stem cells is found in many organs and tissues. Adult stem cells are present in the stem cell niche, this is a specific region of each tissue. The main roles of adult non embryonic stem cells in humans are to maintain and repair the tissue in which they reside. The cells remain inactivated and do not divide for long periods of time until a certain disease or an injury in the tissue in which they reside activates them, and they will then start dividing as more cells are required to maintain the specific tissue. Recently researchers came up with new conditions that would allow specialised adult cells to be genetically programmed in order to be able to differentiate into any type of cell. This type of stem cells is called induced pluripotent stem cells. Pluripotent stem cells have unique special characteristics that make them very useful in a wide range of applications. They have the ability to replace damaged cells and provide a new potential for treating disease. They are used in the treatment of extensive burns, and to restore the blood system in patients with diseases such as Leukaemia and other blood disorders. Stem cells can be used to study the development of humans from a fertilised egg and all the processes involved, scientists could Identify the mechanisms that determine whether a stem cell chooses to replicate itself or to differentiate into a specific cell type, and if that is the case what cell type would it be, these information would allow scientists to find out and understand what controls normal human development. In practice a more complete understanding of the genetic and molecular control of these processes may provide scientists with helpful information about how certain diseases arise. This allows scientists to suggest new ways of treating those diseases. The exceptional property of human embryonic and induced pluripotent stem cells that they can renew themselves while maintaining the ability to differentiate into useful cell types. For example, they have been used as a source of human cardiomyocytes. This allowed scientists to go further in research by using those cardiomyocytes in cell based cardiac therapies, cardiomyocytes have also been used in modeling human heart development and in testing drugs. (4) Also stem cells have the ability to provide a source of insulin producing cells, or repair the damaged the pancreatic tissues. This provides another potential to treat diabetes. (5) New medications could be tested for safety on specific cells that perform special functions. A large number of the specific type of cells on which the medications are to be tested is generated from stem cells. Stem cells have the ability to replace cells lost due to other devastating diseases for which no cures have been found yet. Today donated tissues and organs are often used to replace the specific damaged tissues or organs. The problem with that is the fact that, the need for transplantable tissues and organs is a lot more than the supply available. Stem cells, with the ability to differentiate into specific cell types could offer the possibility of providing a renewable source of replacement cells and tissues to treat diseases and replace the damaged tissues and organs. However significant technical barriers concerning stem cells remain, but they are to be overcome by research which is increasing in both importance and scope due to the huge benefits that could be obtained. References: 1- www.stemcells.nih.gov 2- Tissue engineering, Bernhard O. Palsson and Sangeeta N. Bhatia. 3- Principles of tissue engineering / edited by Robert P. Lanza, Robert Langer, Joseph Vacanti, 2nd edition. 4- Cardiac applications for human pluripotent stem cells. Shiba Y, Hauch KD, Laflamme MA. www.Pubmed.gov 5- Adipose tissue derived stem cells for regeneration and differentiation into insulin-producing cells. Kim SC, Han DJ, Lee JY. www.pubmed.gov 6- Essentials of stem cell biology [electronic resource] / editors, Robert Lanza †¦ [et al.]. 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Garlic: A Taste for Health :: Botany

Garlic: A Taste for Health Culinary garlic is one of the most medically studied herbs today. it has been cultivated since the Neolithic period around 10,000 BC. This bulb has flavored the food of hunters and nomads after the discovery of its intensively robust flavor. The summarians (2600 BC-2100 BC) were actively practicing the healing powers of garlic, and some believe the summarians to have introduced garlic to China, from where it later spread to Japan and Korea. However, some taxonomists believe garlic to be endemic to China. Records have indicated that the medicinal respect for garlic was not fully appreciated in regions of India, China, as well as in southern Europe. The summarians had been using garlic for some time before others caught on to its medicinal success. Many cultures have remedied various ailments with this potent herb. The Egyptians, documented on a papyrus dating back to 1500 BC, prescribed garlic for 22 diseases (1). And according to the 5th century Greek historian Herodotus, the Egyptians had carved an inscription into the great pyramid of King Khufu (Cheops) detailing the amount of garlic, onions, and radishes eaten by the slaves during the twenty-year building period. Egyptians slaves caused the first ever-recorded strike when a ration of garlic did not turn up on time (1). The slaves ate garlic to increase their stamina and to maintain their over-all health. Cloves of garlic have been found in the tomb of Tutankamen who ruled Egypt until 1338 BC. And the Egyptians were not the only ones to worship garlic. According to Theophrastus, ancient Greeks offered garlic on piles of stones at crossroads as a supper for Hecate, god of the underworld. The Bible has even mentioned the Israelites, delivered out of bondage by Moses, complaining of their food and wishing for the same things they had been eating while they were slaves: "Oh, that we had some of the delicious fish we enjoyed so much in Egypt, and the wonderful cucumbers and melons, leeks, onions, and garlic!" (Numbers 11:5, The Living Bible; 2). This pungent herb is also mentioned in the literature of other great kingdoms: Babylon, Medo-Persia, Greece, and Rome (2). Garlic can be found medically prescribed in ancient texts as far back as 1550 BC (1). Garlic was always an ingredient in potions thought to cure external and internal disease (1). The ancient Greeks and Romans used the herb from anything like repelling scorpions to curing bladder infections.

Importance of nutrition during the Infancy and Toddler-hood period Essay

Children are a blessing from God and it is therefore important that we ensure that those bundles of joy are well taken care of. Infants are generally taken to be children from birth to around one year, and it becomes therefore important to give them utmost care since they are at their most vulnerable stage in life. This care should not only be confined to attention and love but most importantly should be the focus of what and how best to feed the infant. Scientists have expressed their belief that what we feed our infants might have drastic consequences later in life. These consequences include such conditions as diabetes and obesity and the rampant rate of obesity in developed countries might just be a reflection of the inability of parents to feed their children’s appropriately (Fallows & Kingham, 2005). Doctors have stated categorically that child4ren should be fed milk only during the first six months of their lives and it should be noted that faulting this wise counsel could risk the health of these infants in the future. Breast milk contains all the vital nutrients that an infant need in order to grow and appropriate vitamins to boost his/her immune system top fend off diseases. It is important to note that while it is advisable to feed the infant using breast milk, infants could also be fed with formula as a supplement of breast milk. There are many reasons why many mothers choose to use formula to feed their babies. Some simply find out that breastfeeding does not work for them either for psychological or practical reasons. The demands of life that leads to very busy lifestyles work against the need for mothers to be with their children full time and formula simply happens to be a better alternative. However, there are still those who express their breast milk in feeding bottles and the milk is fed to the infant by someone else who is available to care for the toddler (Ward, 2009). Infants usually need to feed eight to twelve times in a day since they are growing rapidly and the proteins inside the milk are a vital component for this growth. For those with infants who sleep a lot, it is advisable to wake them regularly in order to feed the since failure to do so might hamper their growth. It is also recommended that parents take their babies to the clinic to have them weighed and observed to ensure that they are growing in a healthy manner and acquire vital information about how best to take care of their babies. There are signs to observe during the sixth month to signify that the infant is ready to start being weaned. This include such period when the baby can sit up, baby does not reject the food put in its mouth, can pick up food stuffs and stuff it into the mouth and an increased appetite for milk. Babies should be weaned slowly with a meal per day and it is important to continue breast feeding at least till one year. Some of the food which one can feed and infant include cereals, soft fruits, rice and vegetables that can be crushed. However, around 10 months infants are ready to be introduced to adult foods but such a transition should be handled with utmost care. As the baby becomes a toddler a period which lasts from between 12 months to 24 months, his food needs increases. During this period the toddler starts to walk and he requires increased proteins for growth and energy foods to sustain his activities. At this period toddlers may change their eating habits due to changes in growth patterns. Moreover, toddlers become choosy when it comes to certain foods and it is nothing to do with illness. Again, parents needs top be careful about the food they feed the infants and toddlers since some of them might be allergic and impair the health of this babies. They should therefore make a point of seeking information diligently about how best to feed their children (Papalia, Wendkos & Duskin, 2007). References Fallows,C. & Karen Kingham, K. (2005). Baby & Toddler Food. Murdoch books. Papalia, D. , Wendkos S. & Duskin, R. (2007). A Child’s World: Infancy through Adolescence:11th Ed. McGraw-Hill Ward, E. (2009). What to Feed Your Baby and Toddler. Retrieved May 17, 2009 from http://children. webmd. com/guide/what-to-feed-your-baby-toddler.